Indian Psychology through the Lens of Sāṅkhya and Yoga Darshanas 

-by Dr. N. Ganesh Rao,
Director – Standing Academic & Accreditation
Committee (IYA), Chief Advisor – Academics & Training (Kaivalyadhama), Founder – ACT Yoga

Introduction
The term “Indian Psychology”, as all of us know, does not stand for psychological behavior of the Indians, or ‘the psychology of the Indian people’, or ‘psychology as taught at Indian universities’ but represents Psychological concepts or richness embedded in Indian Scriptures (the Vedas & other texts) over thousands of years, as also in the traditions and philosophies, the classical Indian thought, arising out of them, directly or indirectly.

There is an uncanny or coincidental correlation between ‘Psychology’ (etymologically – ‘logy of the soul’) and “ancient Indian Philosophy” because the psyche or the soul holds prominence in both.

Modern Psychology is also originally sourced in philosophy – in fact, all so-called ‘sciences’ of today, including psychology, were at one point of time pursued as philosophical speculations – natural inherent human curiosity to know more. Psychology weaned itself away from being a philosophy, from the subject-matter of ‘soul’, in its attempt to become a science and now focuses mainly upon the ‘Mind’ and ‘human behavior’. Both Psychology and Philosophy are rational enterprises.

Psychology, thus, is a subsection of Philosophy. Study of mind (psychology) leads to progress in mental functioning which in turn helps philosophical progress. Philosophy progresses due to psychological knowledge.

Philosophy is a rational enterprise founded on experience. Whose experience? In the ancient Indian context, it is experience of the seers, sages and rishis. Therefore, Śabda or Āgama or testimony of scriptures is a valid source of right knowledge (pramāṇa) in ancient orthodox Indian Philosophy. Hence, faith becomes a corner-stone in philosophical pursuits in the Indian context. Modern Psychology being a science has no place for āgama or faith.

Classical or ancient Indian Philosophy is an attempt to satisfy the natural curiosity of human beings as regards the 3 main subjects: Jīva, Jagat and Iśvara. It attempts to answer questions such as ‘What is the nature of man?’, ‘What is the purpose of this life?’, ‘What is the nature of this universe?’, ‘Is there a beginning and end to this universe?’, ‘Is there a creator of this universe?’, and such other questions. These questions cannot, by their very nature, be conclusively answered by science. Modern Psychology, a science, tries to understand human behavior within the context of society and tries to find ways and means of controlling and improving human behavior. Hence, Indian philosophy takes you beyond science or rather heralds further developments in Modern Science and Modern Psychology.

Thus, Indian Psychology, sourced in Indian Scriptures, may not only be complementary to Modern Psychology but can also supplement Modern Psychology. It can add value to modern Psychology, which in its attempt to be scientific, gets restricted by the empirical sphere, objectivity and universality. Indian Psychology is capable of expanding the limits of modern psychology – study of consciousness, relation between mind and consciousness, behavioral psychology, cross-cultural psychology, transcendental psychology, intuition, spiritual psychology, etc. Indian psychology has a spiritual orientation which is misunderstood as other-worldly. It emphasizes the need to go beyond experimentation into experiencing per se. Modern psychologists have emphasized empirical work, whereas the Indian psychology movement has emphasized insights from experience and realization.

Modern Psychology is based on Western Philosophy and is characterized as naturalistic and rational i.e. this-worldly (phenomenal) and reason-oriented. It is an objective science applicable to all human beings.

For the topic at hand, we shall consider ‘Psychology’ generally as a subject pertaining to the ‘mind’.

II. Sāṅkhya – Yoga, the Flag-bearer of Indian Psychology

a. Yoga and Sāṅkhya may be considered to represent Indian Psychology
Among the āstika śad darśanas, Sāṅkhya and Yoga Darśanas or philosophies can be considered as major contributors to Psychology – Indian Psychology. Mimāmsa or Pūrva Mimāmsa lays emphasis on rites & rituals (karma-kānda), Vedanta is knowledge-oriented (jñāna-kānda), Nyāya is logic-oriented, Vaiśeṣika aligned to Nyāya being theistic talks about evolution theory, Sāṅkhya and Yoga, together, may be considered as Indian Psychology. This in no way implies that the other Indian Philosophies do not have psychological content. All of them have. But the emphasis, and probably, the richness, is more in Sāṅkhya and Yoga. Sāṅkhya provides the philosophical foundations for Yoga practices. Hence, Sāṅkhya is called as theoretical Yoga and Yoga is considered as practical Sāṅkhya.

Each of these 6 philosophies has a basic text in the genre of sutra literature. Thus we have Mimāmsa Sutras of Jaimini for Mimāmsa, Brahma Sutras of Veda Vyāsa for Vedanta, Nyāya Sutras of Gotama or Akshapada for Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika Sutras of Kanada for Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya Sutras of Kapila for Sāṅkhya and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (PYS) for Yoga.

b. Removal of Duḥkha in PYS through Understanding the Mind, Controlling the Mind and Transcending the Mind,
The basic and fundamental text book of Yoga philosophy is Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (PYS). Like all other Indian Philosophies, āstika and nāstika, except the Charvaka philosophy, Yoga also, has, as its goal, the ultimate elimination of sufferings of human life – duḥkha nirodha. Like all other Indian philosophies, Sāṅkhya – Yoga also, considers the cause of this Duhkha as Avidyā or ignorance of Reality. The avidyā in the human being here is wrongly answering the question of “who am I?” Human being is composed of two principles, the Puruṣa and the Prakrti. Puruṣa is the principle of Consciousness and represents the consciousness in us. Prakrti is the principle of matter and is represented by the Sthūla Śarīra (Gross Body) i.e. the physical Body made out of the five elements and Sūkṣma Śarīra (Subtle Body) made up of the Tanmātrās (the essences of elements), Bāhyakaraṇa or external organ (comprising of the Jñānendriyās or the 5 senses of knowledge and the Karmendriyās or the 5 senses of action), the Antaḥ Karaṇa or internal organ (comprising of Manas or mind, the Ahaṅkāra or ego, and the Buddhi or intellect). In summary, we can say that, we are made up of the Consciousness on one side and the Body – Mind – Ego – Intellect complex on the other side i.e. Consciousness +Body & Mind. Out of these two, the Puruṣa or Consciousness is our Reality or Real Self. Avidyā, then, is considering ourselves as or identifying with the body-mind, instead of Consciousness. This is the cause of all our sufferings. Therefore, the solution is ‘Realization’ (which is the meaning of the word ‘Sāṅkhya’ – ‘sama khyāti’ i.e. right knowledge per se) that we are consciousness per se and not merely the body and the mind. Dis-identifying with the body and the mind and establishing ourselves in the Puruṣa or Consciousness (which is the same as Awareness, the Sākśi Bhāva, Mindfulness, etc).

Mind = Sūkṣma Śarīra or Subtle Matter in Indian Psychology. In Sāṅkhya and Yoga, Mind is also Matter. The physical body is Sthūla Śarīra or Gross Matter and the Mind is Sūkṣma Śarīra or Subtle Matter. In one, Tamas guṇa dominates and in the other, Sattva Guṇa dominates inherently.

Mind = Antaḥ Karaṇa (Buddhi, Ahaṅkāra & Manas) in Sāṅkhya. In Yoga, we use the word Ćitta for Mind.

Functions of the elements of Antaḥ Karaṇa in brief are as follows:
Manas = the chief or 11th sense organ whose main function is to synthesize the sensations into perceptions.
Ahaṅkāra = insistence on ‘I’; it is the doer (kartā) & enjoyer (bhoktā) in us.
Buddhi = the ascertainment principle (discriminating and decision-making principle).

i. Understanding the Mind
i. Etymologically, the term ‘Yoga’, arising from ‘yuj-samādhau’, is understood as Samadhi or concentration.

Concentration has to do with the mind and therefore Yoga mainly pertains to the mind.
Samadhi is a state wherein there is no vyādhi (physical ailments) and no ādhi (mental ailments). It is a state of perfect health, perfect integration of personality.
Concentration is the secret of health.
Control of mind means concentration of mind.

Only when we understand Yoga as concentration, Yogic practice can be done Nairantarya or without break. Yoga is a lifestyle and not style of life! We should talk about ‘being yogic’ and not about ‘doing yoga’.

ii. Five Ćitta Bhūmis
In understanding the Mind, Yoga talks about five states or Bhūmis of the Mind namely Mūḍa, Kṣipta, Vikṣipta, Ekāgra and Nirudha. This classification is based on the sole parameter of Concentration. Concentration is a quality of the mind that characterizes all these states / Bhūmis. Also, this classification and parameter of concentration is judged through the medium of Guṇas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas.

The theory of Guṇas provides an exhaustive understanding of the human mind and person.

iii. Definition of Yoga is ‘Ćitta-vritti nirodha”.
Vrittis are functional modifications of the mind viz. right and false knowledge, imagination, deep sleep and memory.

Mind exists in us functionally and not structurally. Therefore, when the functions stop, the mind disappears. We are in the no-mind state.

When the mind disappears, the identification of Puruṣa with mind stops. This is when the goal of Yoga is attained viz. Kaivalya or Self-realization.

iv. Mind needs to be transcended and not abandoned
Antaranga Yoga serves the purpose of transcending the mind.

Knowledge (Jñāna) has to be transcended into Intuition (Prajña)
Body Mind Consciousness (i.e. gross subtle subtlest)
In Sāṅkhya – Yoga, the Mind is placed between the Body and the Spirit (Consciousness) – mind influences both. A happy Mind is a must for a healthy body. At the same time, the mind is the upādhi (obstacle) on the path of Self-Realization. However, the Mind cannot be abandoned. It has to be transcended. If you abandon the Mind you are termed as Buddhu or idiot. When you transcend the Mind you become the Buddha. In Yoga, we develop the mind and then transcend it. Most of us are neither Buddhus nor Buddhas – we are buddhimāns (intellectuals!)

v. Controlling the Mind
Towards this end of controlling the Mind, the PYS propounds the practice of Aṣtāṅga Yoga or Yoga with eight limbs or eight practices viz. Yama, Niyama, Āsana, Prāṇāyāma, Pratyāhāra, Dhāraṇā, Dhyāna and Samādhi. We can see the dominance of Mind in all these eight practices,
Importance of Mind in Practices of Ashtanga Yoga.

All aṅgas are meant for making mind concentrated i.e. leading towards dharaṇā.

Yama – to remove social or interpersonal conflicts
Niyamas – to remove personal conflicts
Āsanas – eliminate conflicts
Prāṇāyāma – makes the mind fit for concentration
Pratyāhāra – withdrawal of sense organs and follow the mind

Dhāraṇā, Dhyāna & Samādhi – Meditation

vi. Antarāyas or obstacles on the path of Yoga are called as ćitta vikṣepas or distractions / disturbances of the mind.

vii. The Consciousness along with the mind continues its journey life after life. In every life, the body is fresh and new but the mind is continuous & cumulative! The Samskāras and the Kleśas determine our tendencies, inclinations, dispositions, etc. Unlike in Modern Psychology, our ‘mental conditioning’ continues life after life and does not pertain only from the birth in this life.

viii. Some specific Mind control techniques given in PYS

Praṇava Japa, Ek Tattva Abhyāsa, Ćittaprasādana techniques, Manas sthithi nibandhini techniques, Pratipakṣa Bhāvanā, etc.

Conclusion

Indian Psychology, Yoga and Sāṅkhya in particular, can not only complement but even supplement Modern Psychology in various aspects.